Current Biomarkers in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment

.: PREFACE
ÖN SÖZ
PREFACE
Prof. Dr. Recai TÜRKOĞLUa, Prof. Dr. Erdem TÜZÜNb
aSağlık Bilimleri Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi, Haydarpaşa Numune Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi, Nöroloji AD, İstanbul, Türkiye
bİstanbul Üniversitesi Aziz Sancar Deneysel Tıp Araştırma Enstitüsü, Sinirbilim AD, İstanbul, Türkiye
Article Language: TR
Multipl skleroz (MS), merkezi sinir sistemini (MSS) etkileyen, kronik, otoimmün kökenli, inflamatuar, demiyelinizan ve nörodejeneratif bir hastalıktır. Hastalık, ataklar ve progresyon gösteren heterojen bir klinik seyir ile karakterizedir. Genç yetişkinleri etkileyen en yaygın travmatik olmayan sakatlayıcı hastalıklardan biridir. MS'in ortaya çıkmasında genetik ve çevresel faktörlerin etkileşimi önemli bir rol oynamaktadır; düşük D vitamini düzeyleri, sigara kullanımı, çocukluk çağı obezitesi ve Epstein-Barr virüsü enfeksiyonu gibi faktörler, hastalığın gelişiminde etkili olabilir. MS hastalarının yaklaşık %20'sinde başlangıç semptomu optik nörit (ON) olup, hastaların %50'si hastalık seyri boyunca ON atağı geçirmektedir. En sık yakınma görme keskinliğinde azalma, ardından diskramatopsi ve retrobulber ağrıdır. Hastalığın ilerlemesiyle nörodejenerasyon belirginleşir ve bu süreç, genellikle daha sinsi bir şekilde ilerleyen progresif faz ile ilişkilendirilir. Relaps-ilişkili kötüleşme (RAW) ve relaps aktivitesinden bağımsız kötüleşme (PIRA) gibi kavramlar, MS'te özürlülük birikiminin temel itici güçleri olarak kabul edilmektedir ve tüm MS fenotiplerinde görülebilir.

MS'in tanı ve takibinde manyetik rezonans görüntüleme (MRG), kritik bir rol oynar. Geleneksel MRG teknikleri T2 ağırlıklı ve FLAIR sekanslarında hiperintens lezyonları saptamakta hassas olsa da, normal görünümlü ak maddede gizli mikroskobik değişiklikleri göstermekte yetersiz kalmaktadır. Bu nedenle, difüzyon tensör görüntüleme (DTG) gibi ileri MRG teknikleri, ak madde yolaklarının yerini, yönünü ve anizotropisini saptayarak, aksonal bütünlüğün bozulduğunu gösteren azalmış fraksiyonel anizotropi (FA) ve artmış ortalama difüzivite (MD) değerlerini ortaya koyar. MRG, beyin atrofisi (özellikle gri madde atrofisi ve total beyin hacmi kaybı) gibi progresyonla ilişkili süreçlerin değerlendirilmesinde önemlidir. Son yıllarda tanımlanan paramanyetik rim lezyonları (PRL), kronik inflamatuar aktiviteyi ve mikroglial aktivasyonu yansıtan ve klinik progresyonla ilişkili, agresif seyreden hastalığın bir biyobelirteci olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Kortikal lezyonlar, hem fiziksel hem de bilişsel engellilikte önemli bir gösterge olup, 7T MRG gibi ultra yüksek alan gücüne sahip cihazlarla daha hassas tespit edilebilir. Leptomeningeal inflamasyon (LME) da progresif MS hastalarında daha sık görülmekte ve gri madde kaybı ile korelasyon göstermektedir. Ayrıca, görsel uyarılmış potansiyeller (VEP); görsel yolak etkilenimini ve subklinik asemptomatik lezyonları göstermede, optik koherens tomografi (OCT) ise retinal sinir lifi tabakası (RNFL) ve ganglion hücre tabakası (GCL) kalınlığını ölçerek aksonal ve nöronal kaybın dolaylı bir göstergesi olarak kullanılır.

Biyobelirteçler, MS progresyonunun erken tespitinde ve hasta takibinde giderek daha kritik bir rol oynamaktadır. Nörofilament hafif zincir (NfL), nöronal hasarın ve aksonal kaybın bir göstergesi olarak kabul edilir ve hem beyin omurilik sıvısında (BOS) hem de serumda (sNfL) tespit edilebilir. Yüksek NfL düzeyleri, atak aktivitesi, T2 lezyon yükü, beyin atrofisi, engellilik ilerlemesi ve hastalık modifiye edici tedaviye (DMT) yanıt ile güçlü bir şekilde ilişkilidir. Özellikle sNfL, klinik hastalık başlangıcından yıllar önce nörodejenerasyonu tespit edebilir ve PIRA'nın önemli bir öngörücüsü olarak kabul edilir. Glial fibriler asidik protein (GFAP), astrosit aktivasyonunu ve astrogliyozisi yansıtan bir biyobelirteçtir ve özellikle progresif MS'te hastalık şiddeti ve progresyonu ile ilişkilidir. NfL ve GFAP'ın birlikte kullanılması, hastalığın ilerlemesinin temel nedenlerini aydınlatmada değerli bilgiler sunma potansiyeline sahiptir. Ayrıca, CXCL13, CXCL10 ve matriks metalloproteinaz-9 (MMP-9) gibi kemokinler, meningeal inflamasyonu ve MS riskini öngörmede rol oynarken, kitinaz-3-benzeri protein 1 (CHI3L1) mikroglial aktivasyon ve inflamasyon şiddeti ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. Beyin kaynaklı nörotrofik faktör (BDNF) ise nöron hayatta kalımı, farklılaşması ve remiyelinizasyon süreçlerini destekleyen, düşük seviyeleri progresif MS ile ilişkili olabilecek potansiyel bir belirteçtir.

MS tedavisinde hastalık modifiye edici tedaviler (DMT'ler) temeldir ve relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) hastalarındaki nüksetmeleri hedef alarak hastalığın ilerlemesini yavaşlatırlar. Ocrelizumab gibi anti-CD20 monoklonal antikorlar, CD20+ B hücrelerini hedefleyerek güçlü anti-inflamatuar etkiler sağlar ve özellikle RRMS tedavisinde etkili olup, primer progresif MS (PPMS)'te engellilik ilerlemesini yavaşlatan ilk onaylanmış tedavidir. Bu tedaviler, relaps ve lezyon oluşumunu azaltarak ve EDSS skorlarının daha yavaş artmasını sağlayarak hastalık aktivitesi kanıtı yokluğu (NEDA-3) kriterlerinin karşılanmasına katkıda bulunur. DMT'lerin yanı sıra, semptomatik tedaviler (spastisite, ağrı, yorgunluk gibi) ve özellikle bilişsel bozukluğa yönelik müdahaleler büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bilişsel bozukluk, MS hastalarının yaklaşık üçte ikisini etkileyen yaygın ve engelleyici bir semptom olup, günlük işlevselliği ve yaşam kalitesini önemli ölçüde etkiler. Bilişsel rehabilitasyon, hem onarıcı hem de telafi edici stratejilerle bilişsel işlevi iyileştirmede etkili bir yaklaşımdır. Bilgisayar destekli bilişsel egzersizler, sanal gerçeklik (VR) ve yapay zekâ (AI) tabanlı sistemler gibi teknoloji tabanlı yaklaşımlar, hafıza, dikkat, yürütücü işlevler ve bilgi işleme hızını artırarak bireyselleştirilmiş ve motive edici tedavi seçenekleri sunmaktadır. Agresif seyirli MS'in erken tanısı ve bu hastalarda biyobelirteçlere dayalı değerlendirmeler, tedavi sürecini optimize etmek ve kalıcı dizabiliteyi önlemek için kritik öneme sahiptir.

Bu kapsamlı kaynaklardan elde edilen bilgiler ışığında bu kitap, MS'in karmaşık dünyasına derinlemesine bir bakış sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Hastalığın klinik belirtilerinden ileri tanı ve takip yöntemlerine, çığır açan biyobelirteçlerin prognostik ve terapötik potansiyelinden, güncel hastalık modifiye edici tedavilere ve bilişsel rehabilitasyonun yaşam kalitesindeki kritik rolüne kadar geniş bir yelpazede bilgi sunarak, klinisyenler, araştırmacılar ve hastalar için değerli bir kaynak olmayı hedeflemektedir.

Prof. Dr. Recai TÜRKOĞLU
Editör
Sağlık Bilimleri Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi, Haydarpaşa Numune Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi, Nöroloji AD, İstanbul, Türkiye

Prof. Dr. Erdem TÜZÜN
Editör
İstanbul Üniversitesi Aziz Sancar Deneysel Tıp Araştırma Enstitüsü, Sinirbilim AD, İstanbul, Türkiye
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, autoimmune, inflammatory, demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS). The disease is characterized by a heterogeneous clinical course with attacks and progression. It is one of the most common non-traumatic disabling diseases affecting young adults. The interaction of genetic and environmental factors plays an important role in the development of MS; factors such as low vitamin D levels, smoking, childhood obesity and Epstein-Barr virus infection may be effective in the development of the disease. optic neuritis (ON) is the initial symptom in approximately 20% of MS patients, and 50% of patients experience ON attacks during the course of the disease. The most common complaint is decreased visual acuity, followed by dyscramatopsia and retrobulbar pain. Neurodegeneration becomes evident with disease progression and this process is usually associated with a more insidious progressive phase. Concepts such as relapse-related deterioration (RAW) and relapse-activity-independent deterioration (PIRA) are recognized as key drivers of disability accumulation in MS and can be seen in all MS phenotypes.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays a critical role in the diagnosis and follow-up of MS. Although conventional MRI techniques are sensitive in detecting hyperintense lesions on T2-weighted and FLAIR sequences, they are inadequate in showing hidden microscopic changes in normal-appearing white matter. Therefore, advanced MRI techniques such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) detect the location, direction and anisotropy of white matter tracts, revealing decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) and increased mean diffusivity (MD) values indicating impaired axonal integrity. MRI is important in the evaluation of progression-related processes such as brain atrophy (especially gray matter atrophy and total brain volume loss). Paramagnetic rim lesions (PRL), defined in recent years, are considered a biomarker of the aggressive disease, reflecting chronic inflammatory activity and microglial activation and associated with clinical progression. Cortical lesions are an important indicator of both physical and cognitive disability and can be detected more sensitively with ultra-high field strength devices such as 7T MRI. Leptomeningeal inflammation (LME) is also more common in progressive MS patients and correlates with gray matter loss. In addition, visual evoked potentials (VEP) are used to demonstrate visual pathway involvement and subclinical asymptomatic lesions, while optical coherence tomography (OCT) is used as an indirect indicator of axonal and neuronal loss by measuring retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) and ganglion cell layer (GCL) thickness.

Biomarkers are increasingly playing a critical role in early detection of MS progression and patient follow-up. Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is considered an indicator of neuronal damage and axonal loss and can be detected in both cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum (sNfL). High NfL levels are strongly associated with attack activity, T2 lesion burden, brain atrophy, disability progression, and response to disease-modifying therapy (DMT). In particular, sNfL can detect neurodegeneration years before clinical disease onset and is considered an important predictor of PIRA. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is a biomarker reflecting astrocyte activation and astrogliosis and is associated with disease severity and progression, particularly in progressive MS. The combined use of NfL and GFAP has the potential to provide valuable information in elucidating the underlying causes of disease progression. Additionally, chemokines such as CXCL13, CXCL10 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) play a role in predicting meningeal inflammation and MS risk, while chitinase-3-like protein 1 (CHI3L1) has been associated with microglial activation and inflammation severity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a potential marker that supports neuron survival, differentiation and remyelination processes, and low levels may be associated with progressive MS.

Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) are fundamental in the treatment of MS and slow the progression of the disease by targeting relapses in patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies such as ocrelizumab provide potent anti-inflammatory effects by targeting CD20+ B cells and are particularly effective in the treatment of RRMS and are the first approved treatment to slow the progression of disability in primary progressive MS (PPMS). These treatments contribute to meeting the no evidence of disease activity (NEDA-3) criteria by reducing relapses and lesion formation and slower increases in EDSS scores. In addition to DMTs, symptomatic treatments (such as spasticity, pain, fatigue) and interventions specifically targeting cognitive impairment are of great importance. Cognitive impairment is a common and disabling symptom affecting approximately two-thirds of MS patients, significantly affecting daily functioning and quality of life. Cognitive rehabilitation is an effective approach to improve cognitive function with both restorative and compensatory strategies. Technology-based approaches such as computer-assisted cognitive exercises, virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI)-based systems offer individualized and motivating treatment options by improving memory, attention, executive functions, and information processing speed. Early diagnosis of aggressive MS and biomarker-based assessments in these patients are critical to optimize treatment and prevent permanent disability.

With the insights from these comprehensive resources, this book aims to provide an in-depth look at the complex world of MS. It aims to be a valuable resource for clinicians, researchers, and patients by providing information on a wide range of topics, from the clinical manifestations of the disease to advanced diagnostic and monitoring methods, from the prognostic and therapeutic potential of groundbreaking biomarkers to current disease-modifying treatments and the critical role of cognitive rehabilitation in quality of life.

Prof. Dr. Recai TÜRKOĞLU
Editor
University of Health Sciences Faculty of Medicine, Haydarpaşa Numune Training and Research Hospital, Department of Neurology, İstanbul, Türkiye

Prof. Dr. Erdem TÜZÜN
Editor
İstanbul University Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Neuroscience, İstanbul, Türkiye

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